Punctuation

Punctuation

Good punctuation is crucial for successful academic writing. Many students’ essays use little punctuation beyond commas and full stops. But to be restricted to just two forms of punctuation mark, when writing your essay, is like building a house using only a hammer and a saw: you can do it; but not very well. By

learning to use more, or all, of the available forms of punctuation you will be able to communicate and express your ideas, and arguments, more clearly.

Full Stop (.)

Full stops have three distinct uses:

1. To mark the end of a sentence

2. To indicate abbreviated words (unless first and last letters of the word are shown).

3. To punctuate numbers and dates

Examples:

The cat is completely black.

The teacher will be John Smith (B. Sci.).

All assignments should be submitted by 6. 6. 03.

Colon (:)

A colon can be used to indicate that a list, quotation

or summary is about to follow.

A colon can also be used to separate an initial sentence/clause from a second clause, list, phrase or quotation that supports the first in a particular way.

Examples:

Buy these things: a packet of peanuts, two loaves of bread and a kilogram of steak.

Writing an assignment is not easy: to begin with you have to do a lot of research.

The Television set, as the icon of the information age, represents the

realization of a dream for humankind: that knowledge and experience can be transmitted and shared across the boundaries of time and space.

Semicolon (;)

Separates two complete sentences that are closely linked. The semicolon can be replaced by a full stop, but the direct link between the two parts is lost.

A semicolon also serves as a second level of punctuation in a series of words or phrases which already have commas, making some internal divisions.

Examples:

To err is human; to forgive, divine.

Don’t go near the lions; they could bite you.

She came out of the house, which had a long drive, and saw the police officer at the end of the path; but instead of continuing towards him, she hid until he left.

Apostrophe (‘)

There are two uses for the apostrophe:

1. Contractions

A contraction is a shortened version of a word. An apostrophe is used to show that something has been left out, and where it has been left out.

2. Possessives

An apostrophe is used to indicate ownership/ possession with nouns. To show ownership by a single individual, insert the apostrophe between the noun and the ‘s’. To show ownership by more than one

individual, use the apostrophe at the end of the word.

Be careful: It’s is the contraction of ‘it is’. It’s is not a possessive (a possessive denotes ownership).

Examples:

don’t (do not) It’ll (It will) she’ll (she will)

It’s too cold to go swimming today.

I don’t think she’ll come to the party.

the dog’s tail (belonging to a single dog)

the women’s magazines boys’ football boots (belonging to more than one boy)

Einstein’s theory of relativity The dog is chasing its own tail!

Question Mark (?)

A question mark is used at the end of a sentence

which is a question.

Example:

Have the students completed the exam?

Comma (,)

Commas are used in longer sentences to separate information into readable units. A single comma ensures correct reading of a sentence which starts with a long introductory element.

Pairs of commas help in the middle of a sentence to set off any string of words which is either a parenthesis, or in contrast, to whatever went before.

A set of commas is a means of separating items in a list within a sentence.

Sometimes a comma is needed between the last two items to ensure clarity.

Example:

When Australia celebrated its sesquicentenary in 1938, there was a little of the confidence or enthusiasm of the centennial celebrations of 1888.

Yet in representing ourselves to ourselves, as film and television do, these media are constantly introducing and reinforcing the assumptions.

The details required are name, date of birth, address and telephone number.

The main divisions of the economy are agriculture, manufacturing, and service industries.

Hyphen (-)

When used correctly, a hyphen links two or more words, that normally would not be placed together, in order that they work as one idea and these are called compound nouns.

Examples:

Stonier’s post-industrial economy is a service economy.

There are four types of information-related machines.

Dashes (—)

Hyphens are not the same as dashes. Dashes are like brackets; they enclose extra information.

A colon and semi-colon would work just as well in the example opposite. Dashes are rarely used in academic writing.

Although often used in pairs, dashes can also be sed singularly.

Examples:

To the three divisions of the economy—agriculture, manufacturing, and service industries—Jones has added a fourth.

Have an orange—or would you prefer a banana?

While the importance of sport to Pay TV is clear, the opposite perspective is less certain—the importance of Pay TV to sport.

Parentheses ( )

Parentheses are brackets used to include extra or nonessential material in sentences. Parentheses should be used  sparingly and always appear in pairs.

In citation systems like Harvard, parentheses are used to include in-text references.

Example:

It was unusual to see Paul awake so early (as he often studied late into the night) and Jane greeted him with amazement.

Larsen and Greene (1989) studied the effects of pollution in three major cities.

Exclamation Mark (!)

An exclamation mark is used at the end of a sentence and indicates surprise, anger, or alarm.

Exclamation marks should be used very sparingly and are not often used in academic writing.

Example

The police stormed in and arrested her!

How disgraceful!

Ellipsis ( ... )

An ellipsis consists of three full stops. It indicates that material has been left out of a quotation.

When quoting, it is sometimes necessary to leave out words or lines for reasons of relevance or length.

Using an ellipsis makes any omissions known to your reader.

Example:

“But to be restricted to just two forms of punctuation mark ... is like building a house using only a hammer and a saw: you can do it; but not very well.”

Improving English writing skills

How to improve your English writing skills

There are many reasons why you might need or want to improve your writing skills in English. Perhaps you need to reply to emails at work in English or take an English language exam, for example, TOEIC or IELTS. Or maybe you need to write essays in English for university, write letters to English friends or relatives or you might want to start writing a blog in English!

Whatever the reason is that you need to improve your English writing skills, you will need to work hard. Having good writing skills in English is not something which is easy to achieve.

English Writing

English writing is thought to be an essential skill for success in the modern global economy.
 Many experts would go as far to say that without certain knowledge

of English reading skills and English writing skills, a career would be somewhat limited if it involves doing business in English-speaking countries at even a basic level.

Therefore, it is recommended that English writing becomes a necessity for any global businessperson who wishes to advance his or her career in the global marketplace. The good news is that while English reading and English speaking are best learnt in either an online forum or an in-class course, English writing can be taught at a pace consistent with your current writing ability.

One method of learning English writing is to study subjects that you enjoy learning about and writing in the style of  your favourite authors of those subjects.
By writing and rewriting particular passages, words and sentences that make up the work, you will gradually notice and understand particular themes that are often used in English writing. Of course, the best way to learn English writing is together with a good English speaking and reading programme so all three can work together to form the basis of a solid knowledge of the English language.

Adding Suffixes

Adding Suffixes

Formation of derivative words with the help of suffixes and main rules for adding suffixes are described in this material. It is necessary to stress that language learners should not try to create new words by adding suffixes, even if you know how to do it. Use only those English words which already exist and are listed in dictionaries.

Suffixes with similar spelling and pronunciation (ance, ence, ant, ent, er, or, able, ible, ize, ise), together with recommendations for choosing suffixes, are described in Difficult Suffixes of Nouns and Adjectives and Difficult Suffixes of Verbs in the section Writing.

Derivation

Derivation is the formation of derivative words by adding derivational affixes (prefixes, suffixes) to existing words. For example: school – preschool; stardard – nonstandard; polite – politeness; beauty – beautiful; simple – simplify; kind – kindly. Some prefixes and suffixes are still productive; that is, they are still used to form new words. But many of them are no longer used in the formation of new words.

The addition of a derivational suffix usually (though not always) creates the word belonging to another part of speech, and the lexical meaning of the resulting word is always changed: memory – to memorize; kind – kindness. The addition of a prefix rarely changes the word's belonging to a certain part of speech: search – research; night – midnight.

Derivation by means of adding derivational suffixes is the most common type of word formation. Examples of typical patterns of derivation by means of suffixation are given below. Not all of the suffixes are used in the examples, and of course, not all nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs form derivatives in these ways.

Typical patterns of derivation

Nouns are formed from verbs by adding the suffixes AGE, AL, ANCE, ENCE, ER, OR, ION, MENT, Y: passage, arrival, appearance, existence, worker, editor, collection, agreement, inquiry.

Nouns are formed from adjectives by adding the suffixes ANCE, ENCE, NESS, TH, TY: elegance, intelligence, darkness, warmth, safety.

Nouns are formed from nouns by adding the suffixes ARY, ERY, ORY, DOM, HOOD, IAN, IST, ISM, SHIP: dictionary, slavery, territory, kingdom, childhood, musician, artist, capitalism, friendship.

Verbs are formed from nouns and adjectives by adding the suffixes ATE, EN, IZE, FY: activate, deepen, apologize, classtify.

Adjectives are formed from verbs by adding the suffixes ABLE, IBLE, ANT, ENT, ORY, IVE: reliable, convertible, ignorant, confident, contradictory, attractive.

Adjectives are formed from nouns by adding the suffixes ABLE, IBLE, AL, AN, IAN, ARY, ORY, EN, FUL, IC, ISH, LESS, OUS, Y: reasonable, sensible, cultural, American, humanitarian, legendary, compulsory, golden, beautiful, patriotic, foolish, hopeless, famous, windy.

Adjectives are formed from adjectives by adding the suffixes AL, ISH: poetical, greenish.

Adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding the suffix LY: exactly, logically.

Note: Inflection

Inflection (inflexion) is the modification of a word with the help of inflectional affixes (usually, with the help of inflectional suffixes, for example, the endings S, ED, ING) to form grammatical forms (plural forms, tense forms) of the same word. Main types of inflection are the following: declension of nouns and pronouns (a play – two plays; he – him); conjugation of verbs (to play – he plays, he is playing, he played); and comparison of adjectives and adverbs (early, earlier, earliest).

Main rules for adding S, ED, ING are described in Adding the Ending s/es to Nouns and Verbs and Adding the Endings ed, ing to Verbs in the section Writing. Main rules for adding ER, EST to adjectives and adverbs are described in Degrees of Comparison in the section Miscellany.

Zero derivation

Derivative words may also be formed from existing words without adding any prefix or suffix; that is, by using one and the same form of a word as another part of speech: to change – a change; dry (adj.) – to dry; early (adj.) – early (adv.). Zero derivation (conversion) is widely used in the formation of nouns from verbs and verbs from nouns.

Here's a short list of common words that can be used as nouns or verbs, with the same spelling and pronunciation: act, answer, book, break, call, change, deal, drink, face, fear, hand, head, help, light, look, love, mark, move, need, notice, order, pack, place, question, reply, ride, space, stay, telephone, time, walk, work.

Zero derivation may be accompanied by changes in pronunciation and spelling: use [yu:z] (v.) – use [yu:s] (n.); advise (v.) – advice (n.); respond (v.) – response (n.); believe [bi'li:v] (v.) – belief [bi'li:f] (n.); food (n.) – feed (v.). Nouns and verbs may also be formed in this way by shifting stress: import [im'po:rt] (v.) – import ['impo:rt] (n.); progress ['progres] (n.) – progress [prə'gres] (v.). Stress in derivative words is described in Word Stress in the section Phonetics.

Other types of word formation

Compounding is the formation of compound words by combining two or more existing words: highway, love story, old-fashioned, twenty-three. Examples of compound nouns, verbs, adjectives and numerals are provided in Stress in Compound Words in the section Phonetics.

Words are also borrowed from other languages. In the course of its history, English borrowed a large number of words from Latin, Greek, French, and from the Scandinavian languages. There are also some borrowings from other languages. For example, here are some loan words from Russian: babushka, balalaika, borscht, cosmonaut, dacha, ruble, rouble, samovar, sputnik, steppe, taiga, troika, tundra, tsar, vodka.

Creating completely new words (neologisms) is an ongoing process nowadays. New devices and new words for them appear, for example, cell phone, mobile phone, smart phone. The Internet seems to be an inexhaustible source of new words. Such recent neologisms as "blog, blogger, blogosphere, download, e-mail, login, online, spam, spammer, upload, website" have become quite common in our speech.

Usefulness of studying suffixes

Suffixes help us to recognize the part of speech to which some word belongs, and that helps us to understand the meaning of the word. For example, clearly recognizable suffixes of nouns, adjectives and verbs are the following:

Suffixes of nouns: AGE (courage), ANCE (assistance), ENCE (violence), ANCY (vacancy), ENCY (currency), ER (teacher), OR (visitor), DOM (freedom), HOOD (brotherhood), ICS (economics), IST (dentist), ISM (idealism), ION (region), TION (information), MENT (payment), NESS (business), SHIP (leadership), ITY (ability).

Suffixes of adjectives: ABLE (valuable), IBLE (flexible), FUL (useful), LESS (homeless), OUS (dangerous).

Suffixes of verbs: IZE (organize), ISE (advertise), IFY (simplify).

Meanings of suffixes

Knowing the meaning of suffixes helps us to understand the meaning of various words. Suffixes have general meanings. For example:

Noun suffixes ANCE, ENCE, ANCY, ANCY, DOM, HOOD, ION (TION), ISM, NESS, MENT, SHIP, Y denote state or act of what is indicated by the root of the word: absence, freedom, illness, citizenship, accusation, movement, delivery.

Noun suffixes ER, OR, EER, IST often denote a person performing an action or a person's profession: buyer, professor, engineer, pianist.

Adjectival suffixes ABLE, IBLE, ARY, ORY, FUL, IC, ISH, IVE, LESS, OUS denote features, qualities or properties of someone or something: preferable, invisible, legendary, obligatory, respectful, automatic, reddish, responsive, aimless, nervous.

Verb suffixes ATE, EN, IZE, FY mean "to perform the act of, to make": confiscate, lengthen, modernize, clarify. The adverbial suffix LY indicates that the action is performed in a certain manner: slowly, seriously, periodically.

Of course, you need to know both the meaning of the root and the meaning of the suffix in order to understand the whole word correctly. But even if you don't know the meaning of the root, the suffix still helps to identify the part of speech to which this or that word belongs.

Difficulties in studying suffixes

In some cases, one and the same suffix (or its homonyms) is used in the formation of words belonging to different parts of speech. Such suffixes require special attention.

The suffixes AL, ANT, ENT, ARY, ORY, IC, Y are used in the formation of nouns and adjectives: approval (n.), formal (adj.); lieutenant (n.), important (adj.); president (n.), confident (adj.); secretary (n.), necessary (adj.); laboratory (n.), preparatory (adj.); music (n.), basic (adj.); melody (n.), greedy (adj.).

The suffix ATE is used in the formation of adjectives, nouns and verbs: obstinate (adj.), doctorate (n.), calculate (v.). The suffix LY is used in the formation of adjectives and adverbs: lovely (adj.), nicely (adv.). The suffix EN is used in the formation of verbs and adjectives: widen (v.), wooden (adj.).

A word containing a suffix is often converted into a different part of speech by zero derivation, and then the suffix does not help us to understand to what part of speech this word belongs.

Suffixes that are often found in nouns and adjectives of the same form are AL (manual), AN (human), IAN (vegetarian), ANT (instant), IC (magic), IVE (detective). The suffix ATE is found in verbs, nouns and adjectives of the same form: graduate, moderate. The suffix LY is found in adjectives and adverbs of the same form: weekly, kindly.

To understand what parts of speech words with these suffixes represent, analyze them in sentences or in word combinations. For example, the word "graduate" in "he graduated from college in 2005" is a verb; the word "graduate" in "he is a Harvard graduate" is a noun; the word "graduate" in "a graduate student" is an adjective.

Changes in spelling and pronunciation that occur when suffixes are added present considerable difficulty for language learners. The material below should help you to sort out these issues.

Adding suffixes: General rules

Generally, when a suffix is added to a word ending in a consonant, the spelling of the word and the suffix are not changed.

adopt – adoption;

cold – coldness;

quick – quickly;

pass – passage;

act – active;

danger – dangerous.

Changes take place mostly in those cases where a suffix beginning with a vowel is added to a word ending in E or Y, and in some cases of adding to GE, CE, C, DE, D, T. Changes in pronunciation may also take place. Main cases of change in spelling and pronunciation are described below. Transcription is indicated according to American pronunciation.

Case 1: Final E is retained

The final mute letter E is retained before a suffix beginning with a consonant.

peace + ful = peaceful;

care + less = careless;

love + ly = lovely;

sure + ly = surely;

achieve + ment = achievement;

pale + ness = paleness;

safe + ty = safety ['seifti].

Exceptions

In some cases the final E is dropped before adding a suffix beginning with a consonant.

awe + ful = awful;

whole + ly = wholly;

wise [waiz] + dom = wisdom ['wizdəm];

due + ly = duly;

true + ly = truly;

true + th = truth;

wide + th = width [widθ];

five + th = fifth [fifθ];

nine + th = ninth [nainθ];

argue + ment = argument;

judge + ment = judgment, judgement;

abridge + ment = abridgment, abridgement;

acknowledge + ment = acknowledgment, acknowledgement [ək'nolijmənt].

Case 2: Final E is dropped

The final mute letter E is dropped before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel. In many cases, pronunciation of the resulting word is changed.

guide [gaid] + ance = guidance ['gaidəns];

reside [ri'zaid] + ence = residence ['residəns];

note [nout] + ion = notion ['noushən];

starve + ation = starvation [sta:r'veishən];

simple + icity = simplicity [sim'plisiti];

please [pl:z] + ure = pleasure ['plezhər];

lie [lai] + ar = liar ['laiər];

type + ist = typist;

arrive + al = arrival;

like + able = likable;

sense + ible = sensible;

fame + ous = famous;

compete [kəm'pi:t] + ent = competent ['kompitənt].

Variants of spelling: likable, likeable; takable, takeable; usable, useable.

Case 3: Final GE, DGE

The letter E in the final GE and DGE is retained to keep the pronunciation of G as [j] before suffixes beginning with A or O.

manage ['mænij] + able = manageable ['mænijəbl];

knowledge + able = knowledgeable;

judge + able = judgeable;

abridge + able = abridgable, abridgeable;

courage ['kərij] + ous = courageous [kə'reijəs].

Case 4: Final CE

Final CE before A, O

The letter E in the final CE is retained to keep the pronunciation of C as [s] before suffixes beginning with A or O.

notice ['noutis] + able = noticeable ['noutisəbl];

service ['sərvis] + able = serviceable ['sərvisəbl].

Other cases of spelling and pronunciation of final CE before and after the addition of certain suffixes:

announce [ə'nauns] + ment = announcement [ə'naunsmənt];

pronounce [prə'nauns] + ation = pronunciation [prənənsi'eishən];

produce [prə'du:s] + tion = production [prə'dəkshən].

Final CE before IAL, IER, IOUS

The letter E in the final CE is dropped before adding the suffixes IAL, IER, IOUS; the combination CI (in some cases TI) in such words is usually pronounced [sh].

space [speis] + ious = spacious ['speishəs];

malice ['mælis] + ious = malicious [mə'lishəs];

commerce ['komərs] + ial = commercial [kə'mərshəl];

residence ['residəns] + ial = residential [resi'denshəl].

Case 5: Final C

Final C before IAN

When the suffix IAN is added to words like "magic, music", the combination CI is pronounced [sh].

magic ['mæjik] + ian = magician [mə'jishən];

music ['myu:zik] + ian = musician [myu:'zishən];

politics ['politiks] + ian = politician [poli'tishən].

Final C is changed to CK

The final C is changed to CK to keep the pronunciation of C as [k] before suffixes beginning with E, I or Y.

picnic + er = picnicker;

panic + y = panicky;

traffic + ing = trafficking.

Case 6: Final Y

Final Y is not changed

The final letter Y that doesn't form a syllable (Y stands after a vowel) is not changed before adding a suffix.

play + ful = playful;

betray + al = betrayal;

employ + ment = employment;

pay + ment = payment;

gray + ish = grayish;

boy + ish = boyish.

BUT: day + ly = daily.

Variants of spelling: gay, gaily, gayly, gaiety, gayety, gayness.

Final Y is changed to I

The final letter Y that forms a syllable (Y stands alone after a consonant) is usually changed to I before adding any suffix except a suffix beginning with I.

busy + ness = business;

likely + hood = likelihood;

pity + ful = pitiful;

easy + ly = easily;

library + an = librarian;

memory + al = memorial;

family + ar = familiar;

mystery + ous = mysterious;

marry + age = marriage;

rely + able = reliable;

twenty + eth = twentieth;

purify + er = purifier.

BUT: babyhood, everyday, dryness, shyness, slyness, wryness; dryly, shyly, wryly.

Variants of spelling: drier, dryer (noun); drier, driest (adj.); flier, flyer (noun); shyer, shier, shyest, shiest (adj.); slyer, slier, slyest, sliest (adj.); slyly, slily (adv.).

Final Y before ISH, IST, ISM

The final Y that forms a syllable is not changed before adding the suffixes ISH, IST, ISM.

baby + ish = babyish;

forty + ish = fortyish;

copy + ist = copyist;

party + ism = partyism.

Final Y before IC

The final Y is dropped before adding the suffix IC (or IC+AL).

geometry + ic = geometric;

botany + ical = botanical.

Note: IC, ICAL

There are a lot of pairs of adjectives with the suffixes IC and ICAL (IC+AL). If the dictionary indicates the same meaning for the adjectives in the pair, the first variant is usually the most common. Some of such adjectives are different in meaning. For example:

history – historic – historical;

economy – economic – economical.

Adverbs add LY to ICAL

Adverbs are formed from such adjectives by adding the suffix LY only to the suffix ICAL (even if such adjectives with the suffix ICAL do not exist).

historic (adj.), historical (adj.) – historically (adv.);

ironic (adj.), ironical (adj.) – ironically (adv.);

basic (adj.) – basically (adv.).

BUT: public (adj.) – publicly (adv.).

Case 7: Final DE, D, T

In some cases, final DE, D and T change to S or SS before adding the suffix ION.

decide [di'said] + ion = decision [di'sizhən];

include [in'klu:d] + ion = inclusion [in'klu:zhən];

extend [ik'stend] + ion = extension [ik'stenshən];

submit [səb'mit] + ion = submission [səb'mishən].

Note the spelling of some derivative adjectives: decisive [di'saisiv], inclusive [in'klu:siv], extensive [ik'stensiv], submissive [səb'misiv].

Rare spelling: suspect [sə'spect] + ion = suspicion [sə'spishən].

In many other similar cases, the suffix ION (or its variants TION, ATION) is added without peculiarities.

add [æd] – addition [ə'dishən];

recommend – recommendation;

devote [di'vout] – devotion [di'voushən];

invite [in'vait] – invitation [invi'teishən];

limit ['limit] – limitation [limi'teishən].

Case 8: Double consonants

If a final single consonant ends a stressed syllable containing a single vowel, the final consonant is doubled before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel. If either of these conditions is absent, the final consonant is not doubled (except final L).

Adding ER: ban, banner; cut, cutter; dig, digger; rob, robber; rub, rubber; tip, tipper.

Other examples: stop, stoppage; drop, droppable; fun, funny; red, reddish; sad, sadden.

Adding to final R: refer, referral; occur, occurrence; stir, stirring.

BUT: prefer, preferable; refer, reference.

Adding to final L: excel, excellent; cancel, cancellation; (BrE) travel, traveller; (AmE) travel, traveler.

Adding LY to final L always gives double L in the adverb: awful, awfully; gradual, gradually; normal, normally; official, officially; real, really.

Note: full + ly = fully.